Dogs
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Overview
Dogs are descended from a tree climbing carnivore that
appeared some 40,000,000 years ago; 7,000,000 years ago the
Canidae family began to differentiate into wolves, foxes,
coyotes, fennecs and jackals. It has long been assumed that dogs
were first domesticated in Europe and Asia around 10,000 years
ago; they followed nomadic groups eating leftovers and gradually
became used as watchdogs and protectors. Recent studies of
fossil records, however have generated the hypothesis that
domestication occurred much earlier.
Whenever the domestication did occur, ensuing selective
breeding of the four main groups descended from that original
ancestor—herd dogs, hounds and terriers, Northern and toy
dogs and guard dogs—resulted in over 400 separate breeds.
There continues to be conservation efforts focused on the entire
canine family. Suffice it to say that dogs are an ancient species
with a long history of living with human beings. Because of their
socialization with human beings they are used as therapy aids for
particular populations of patients and as Police Dogs.
Their innate characteristics, e.g. their pack social structure
and hunting life style, as well as the long tradition of
domestication, are indications for their care in a research
setting. Although different breeds vary in requirements, all dogs
need regular exercise and social interaction with other dogs and
are extremely responsive to training and handling. The
regulations concerning dogs state that unless there is scientific
justification otherwise, they must be provided opportunity for
exercise. Details are left up to the individual research teams.
Since dogs are pack animals, every attempt is usually made to
pair or group house them; if they need to be singly housed they
should have daily access to each other, when compatible, in some
fashion. Many research institutions provide some sort of indoor
group housing with access to larger run areas. Dogs and Dog
Housing, a publication of the Animal Welfare Information Center,
is a good summary of some of the current thinking about the
housing and social needs of dogs as is Comfortable Quarters for
Dogs in Research Institutions
Most of the dogs used in research are beagles due to their
convenient size and docile nature. Larger dogs, such as Labradors
are often used for orthopedic research. Just as mice and rats are
unique in being highly genetically selected for research needs,
pigs unique in their use as a food source, dogs are a special
sort of laboratory animal in that they have been companion
animals for many centuries. Because of this emotional tie that
many feel toward dogs, their use in research has been an area of
public concern.
Research workers, especially the technicians and handlers who
take care of the dogs on a daily basis, often also have strong
responses to their dogs and become emotionally involved with
them. As a result of this bond between dog and people, there are
many research programs that offer their research dogs for
adoption after the study is over. Although euthanasia of any
animal causes stress, the bereavement experienced by those using
dogs needs special recognition.
Dogs and science
Because of their history of domestication and tractability
dogs have a long history as research subjects. Early studies on
blood circulation and drug administration used dogs. Their use in
diabetes research has been well documented. The Jackson Lab, in
the early years, conducted well known genetics research using
dogs. They have also been used, along with non-human primates for
maternal deprivation studies. The Animal Welfare Information
Center maintains a number of databases and bibliographies;
“Housing, Husbandry and Welfare of the Dog” contains
article references to a wide range of topics.
In modern times, beagles have become the breed of choice, due
to their useful size and docile temperament. Due to their genetic
heritage as pack animals they need early socialization and
interactions with people while working as lab animals:
There are three categories of research dog—purpose bred,
random source and conditioned. Purpose-bred dogs are bred
specifically for research and obtained from Class A dealers who
raise all their dogs in a closed colony on their own premises.
Random-source dogs are gotten either directly from shelters or
from Class B dealers: these dealers purchase the dogs either from
individuals or shelters and then sell them to research labs. Once
random-source dogs have been quarantined, vaccinated, and
determined free of parasites and any other medical or biological
anomaly, they are considered “conditioned.” Every
institution will have specific regulations for the receiving and
processing of dogs, whatever their category.
Historically dogs have been used for surgical research and
practice and for drug testing, both basic pharmacological trials
and toxicity testing. Another major area is in researching canine
familial disorders that are analogous for similar human diseases.
There is also a great deal of research about dogs themselves, for
example, the Canine Olfactory Detection Laboratory at the Auburn
University College of Veterinary Medicine.
The bonds that form between dogs and people have lead to
public concerns over their use as research subjects; in
particular, the argument over the use of stray or abandoned dogs,
"ex-pets," has been a source of contention. In 1966,
Life Magazine published an article titled “Concentration
Camp for Dogs,” an expose of the practice of selling dogs,
either those purchased from shelters or found abandoned, to
research institutions. The resulting public outcry led to the
Animal Welfare Act of 1966 legislation that has since been
enlarged upon and ammended several times. This case also
spearheaded efforts to establish The Animal Welfare Institute, an
organization that strives for a middle ground, a liaison between
the public and the laboratory animal research community. The
discussion over the use of shelter or stray dogs as research
subjects continues today, with some states permitting and others
forbidding shelters to sell dogs to dealers.
The argument over whether or not to use stray/abandoned dogs
for research is part of the larger issue of animals in society,
and the range of attitudes towards them. Shelters point out the
dilemma they face over confronting owner neglect, questioning
whether a dog disappearing can be, in reality, tied to dealer
activity. The care and housing of greyhound dogs used in racing
points out another example of the spectrum, with people viewing a
greyhound as either a commondity, a financial tool, or a
househould companion. Proponents of using retired greyhounds as
research subjects, note that these dogs have known genetic
records, have a defined health status and vaccination history,
and are well used to living in caged quarters. And, unlike pet
dogs, when their usefullness is over, they are euthanized.
Biology and Husbandry
Dogs are carnivores with monogastric digestive systems; they
are usually maintained on a commercial balanced formula with
sufficient polyunsaturated fatty acid content. They need to be
fed at least one meal a day; ad lib feeding can result in weight
gain—a tendency in beagles—but if fed one or two meals
a day, provision must be made to insure that low ranking
individuals have access to food. Fresh water must always be
available, either in bowls or via an automated system. The
caretaker must be the dominant “member of the pack” so
as to facilitate handling and cleaning. As noted, dogs at the
lower end of the pack order need to be provided with assured
sleeping areas and privacy places. If given free access to an
outdoor run, dogs will keep their bedding area free of urine and
feces; sawdust or wood chips help keep their coats clean and add
to their comfort. Some sort of raised plastic bed will help
conserve body heat. A new website from New South Wales has posted
a 25 page Adobe document entitled Guidelines for the Care and
Housing of Dogs in Scientific Institutions. Although the
regulations cited are for New South Wales, the guidelines and
discussions, valuable for anyone working with dogs, range from
descriptions of housing design and construction, record keeping
and health monitoring to culling and euthanasia.
Since dogs are a sociable, intelligent species they do best
when housed either in pairs or small compatible groups in an
environment affording some level of complexity and choice. There
is a range of possibilities with housing dogs; one situation is a
combination of indoor and outdoor pen areas, with open access to
the outside run, and either wood chips or straw in the indoor
area, with raised sleeping areas and privacy spaces to
accommodate lower ranking individuals and another might be an
indoor environment with some sort of complexity built into it.
Daily contact with caretakers is important as well. It is
important to provide food and water in such a way as to assure
these lower ranking dogs access. The Scientists’
Center for Animal Welfare has posted the proceedings of a
conference held in 1989 entitled, Canine Research Environment.
This 80 page document includes articles on exercise requirements,
regulations and includes research papers discussing biological
responses to environment and exercise.
Temperature, humidity, ventilation and lighting
An indoor temperature range of 15-24oC, and humidity of 55
percent ± 10 percent, with 8-12 air changes per hour is
suitable. New-born puppies require an ambient temperature of
26-28oC for at least the first 10 days of life. Lighting should
be adequate for staff to work, and there may be a case for a low
level of nocturnal illumination in totally enclosed facilities.
(Robert Hubrecht, “Dogs and Dog Housing”)
Monitoring
Inspect all the dogs on a daily basis and in this way,
something out of the ordinary will be immediately apparent. It is
also a good idea to visually examine each dog in a systematic
way, beginning with the general appearance and behavior.
Individuals should be alert and responsive and walk without
evidence of stiffness or lameness. Check that the food and water
levels are at usual levels; if ad lib feeding, note either too
much left over or if never any left over (overfeeding can lead to
obesity); generate a normal so as to be able to note a change.
The gums should be pink, not inflamed, moist and smooth, with no
mouth odor. The eyes should be bright, clear, free of any
discharge and responsive. Ears should be clean, without discharge
or odor. Note if there is any scratching at the ears which could
indicate an infection. The coat should be clean, shiny and free
of parasites – note any excessive scratching. Respiration,
even after exercise should be easy, without coughing. Check that
urine and feces are free of blood or pus, in the amounts and of
consistency and appearance that is normal for that animal.
Major illnesses
Dogs that are purpose-bred should arrive at your facility
already vaccinated and from disease-free colonies; it is helpful
to obtain the animals from the same dealer so as to take
advantage of group immunities. If you have bred the dogs at your
facility their health status will also be known to you. There are
class B dealers who do provide healthy, pre-conditioned dogs. If
the dogs are from public shelters, they will need to mostly
likely go into a careful quarantine protocol before considered
part of the experimental population. This conditioning period is
vital to protect other lab animals as well as research workers
from the zoonotic diseases that dogs are susceptible to. It also
serves to acclimate the new arrivals to their new situtation,
become familiar with the routines and staff, form compatible
relationships with cage mates, and become tested and vaccinated.
Closed colony populations are easier to keep disease free;
risk can come from the occasional new dog or from handlers who
own dogs at home. If the population fluctuates due to short term
studies, special care must be taken to keep new arrivals
separate; groups from the same source should be housed together.
In some cases, the diseases can be subclinical but this can still
affect research results in terms of blood values, immune
suppression, healing times, etc.
Viral diseases
- Infectious canine hepatitis (fever, anorexia, malaise,
leucopenia; following recovery, virus is shed in urine
for several months)
- Distempter (fever, anorexia, diarrhea, discharge from
nose and eyes; can have nervous system sequella after
disease)
- Parvovirus (vomiting, diarrhea-dystentary, severe
dehydration, depression, puppies or dogs in poor
condition often die)
- Herpes virus (infertility, abortions, stillbirths,
neonatal problems)
- Rabies(symptoms of mood alteration appear when virus in
brain; hence the 10 day waiting period as this is the end
stage of the disease.)
Bacterial Diseases
- Canine Infectious Tracheobronchitis (Kennel Cough
Complex) (appears in both mild and severe
forms—mild: acute onset of dry cough, often worse
with excitement or exercise, usually resolves in 7-14
days even if untreated; severe illness usually in dogs in
poor condition, immunosupression or no vaccination
history. In this case—fever, anorexia, depression,
productive cough and mucopurulent naso-ocular
discharge—treatment is needed. Highly infectious,
airborne disease that occurs when dogs from mixed sources
are mixed.)
- Leptospira canicola (chronic or acute renal failure)
- Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae (jaundice, depression,
death; this disease is transmitted via rats)
- Brucella canis (abortion; orchitis in males)
Parasitic problems
- Round, hook and tape worms,
Toxocariasis (Diarrhea,
unthriftiness—can be a severe problem in unhealthy
puppies)
- Mange (mites, can be carried on rodents, pruritis,
infestation in ear canal causes intense itching; screen
new arrivals
carefully)
- Ringworm (fungal disease that can spread to man, broken
hair and areas of hair loss, isolate the dog and
disinfect the quarters)
- Fleas (worse in hot, damp climates; if dogs have access
to outdoor pens/runs be sure to treat area as well as
dog; thoroughly clean pens, beds)
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